Current Affairs — 19 October 2026

1. COP17: The UN Biodiversity Conference Opens in Yerevan

Basic Concept

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992, is one of the three Rio Conventions (along with the UNFCCC and UNCCD) and is the main international treaty for conserving biodiversity, ensuring its sustainable use, and sharing the benefits of genetic resources fairly. Its Conference of the Parties (COP) meets periodically to review progress and adopt new commitments. At COP15 in 2022, parties adopted the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF), which set 23 action-oriented targets to be achieved by 2030, including protecting 30% of the planet's land and sea area (the "30x30" target) and mobilising at least USD 200 billion a year for biodiversity from all sources, with USD 30 billion a year in international finance flowing to developing countries by 2030.

Core Context

COP17 formally opened on 19 October 2026 in Yerevan, Armenia, with more than 10,000 delegates in attendance, marking the halfway point to the KMGBF's 2030 deadline. The 11-day meeting aims to finalise the "Yerevan Pathway", a package of decisions meant to accelerate implementation of the Framework, alongside parallel negotiations on the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing.

Latest Developments

• A UN report released on 15 October 2026 by Secretary-General António Guterres found that fewer than half of the assessed national targets under the KMGBF are on track, prompting CBD Executive Secretary Astrid Schomaker to stress that "commitments must be honoured".

• Civil society groups argue that, far from improving, the global biodiversity situation has worsened since 2022, intensifying pressure on negotiators in Yerevan.

• The summit has also drawn criticism over host-country contradictions, with Armenia's clearance of operations at the Amulsar gold mine cited by groups such as the Global Forest Coalition as inconsistent with its hosting role.

• India is a party to the CBD and had earlier updated its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) to align with the KMGBF targets, making COP17's stock-take directly relevant to India's own biodiversity commitments.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The CBD (1992) is one of the three Rio Conventions, alongside the UNFCCC and UNCCD, all born out of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.

• The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework was adopted at CBD-COP15 (2022) and contains 23 targets to be met by 2030 and 4 long-term goals for 2050.

• The widely cited "30x30" target refers to protecting at least 30% of the world's terrestrial, inland water, and marine and coastal areas by 2030.

• COP17 (2026) was held in Yerevan, Armenia, and produced the "Yerevan Pathway" package of decisions.

2. 153rd IPU Assembly Concludes in Arusha

Basic Concept

The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), headquartered in Geneva, is the global organisation of national parliaments, founded in 1889 to promote dialogue, democracy, and cooperation among legislatures. It holds its Assembly twice a year, bringing together parliamentary delegations from member states to debate global governance issues and adopt non-binding resolutions that often feed into UN processes. India's Parliament is a long-standing IPU member, and Indian delegations, usually led by presiding officers of the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha, regularly participate to project India's position on multilateral issues.

Core Context

The 153rd IPU Assembly was held in Arusha, Tanzania, with its theme centred on good governance and inclusivity. The Assembly adopted the "Arusha Communiqué" and elected Milton Dick, Speaker of Australia's House of Representatives, as the 32nd President of the IPU. India's delegation, led by the Rajya Sabha Deputy Chairman, participated actively in the discussions, including sessions on climate governance.

Latest Developments

• The Assembly's host, Tanzania, used the platform to highlight African parliamentary perspectives on governance and development.

• Climate governance was a recurring theme at the Assembly, with the Indian delegation engaging in discussions on the role of parliaments in climate action and accountability.

• The election of a new IPU President every two years reflects the organisation's rotating leadership model among its roughly 180 member parliaments.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) was founded in 1889 and is the oldest multilateral political organisation in the world, pre-dating the UN.

• The IPU holds two Assemblies a year and works closely with the United Nations, holding permanent observer status at the UN General Assembly.

• Milton Dick, Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives, was elected the 32nd President of the IPU at the 153rd Assembly in Arusha, Tanzania.

3. UNIFIL's Mandate in Lebanon Nears Its End

Basic Concept

The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) was established by UN Security Council Resolution 425 in 1978 to confirm Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon. Its mandate was expanded after the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah war through Resolution 1701, tasking it with monitoring the cessation of hostilities and supporting the Lebanese Armed Forces in maintaining a weapons-free zone in the south. India has been a troop-contributing country to UNIFIL since 1998, reflecting its long tradition of UN peacekeeping, which began with its first mission in Korea in 1950.

Core Context

The UN has stressed the need to keep southern Lebanon stable as UNIFIL's final mandate, extended for the last time until 31 December 2026, draws to a close. Discussions are underway on how peacekeeping and monitoring functions will be handled once the mission formally winds down.

Latest Developments

• UNIFIL's drawdown is being watched closely given ongoing tensions in the region and the fragile ceasefire arrangements in southern Lebanon.

• India has contributed peacekeepers to UNIFIL continuously since 1998, part of its broader record as one of the largest troop contributors to UN peacekeeping historically.

• The UN Security Council's decision on a terminal date for UNIFIL reflects a broader trend of reviewing and right-sizing long-running peacekeeping missions.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• UNIFIL was created in 1978 under UNSC Resolution 425 and expanded under Resolution 1701 (2006).

• India has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping missions since 1950 (Korea) and has been part of UNIFIL since 1998.

• UNIFIL's mandate, after its final extension, runs until 31 December 2026.

4. Crowd Safety and Disaster Management: Lessons from Recent Tragedies

Basic Concept

India's Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster management as a continuous cycle of prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, relief and rehabilitation, and created the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) to coordinate this at the national level, with State Disaster Management Authorities performing a similar role at the state level. Mass-gathering events such as religious festivals are classified as "non-natural" or human-induced disaster risks, and the NDMA has separate guidelines on crowd management at such events, covering entry-exit planning, barricading, and real-time crowd-density monitoring.

Core Context

Two tragedies during the ongoing festival season underline these gaps. Near Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh, a truck carrying paddy ploughed into Navratri devotees near the Sheetla Mata temple, killing 15 people and injuring over 40; the driver reportedly cited brake failure, and the state government transferred the local Superintendent of Police, suspended eight police personnel, and announced compensation. Separately, a stampede at a Durga Puja pandal in north Kolkata, reportedly triggered by an announcement that the structure could collapse, has seen its toll rise to 19 deaths, prompting a police case and a special investigation team headed by a sitting Calcutta High Court judge.

Latest Developments

• Explainer pieces following these events have focused on how stampedes typically begin — through sudden, localised panic in a dense crowd rather than a single cause — and on preventive measures such as capacity limits, multiple marked exits, and trained crowd marshals.

• Both incidents occurred at religious congregations, an area the NDMA's 2014 guidelines on crowd management specifically flagged as high-risk due to narrow access points and emotionally charged gatherings.

• Administrative accountability measures (transfers, suspensions, compensation) in the Gwalior case reflect the standard post-disaster relief and response mechanism under the Disaster Management Act, 2005, even though the specific event (a vehicular accident) sits at the intersection of road safety and crowd management.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was constituted under the Disaster Management Act, 2005, chaired by the Prime Minister.

• Mass-gathering/stampede risk is typically categorised as a human-induced or non-natural disaster in India's disaster management framework.

• The institutional response chain for state-level disasters runs from the District Disaster Management Authority up to the State Disaster Management Authority and NDMA.

5. CISF's Shift to a Sector-Based Security Structure

Basic Concept

The Central Industrial Security Force (CISF), raised in 1969 and functioning under the Ministry of Home Affairs, is one of India's Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs). It was originally created to provide security to public sector industrial undertakings and has since expanded to cover airports, metro systems, seaports, and other critical infrastructure. The CISF is unique among CAPFs in that its funding for deployment is largely borne by the establishments it protects, on a cost-reimbursement basis.

Core Context

The CISF is reorganising its administrative structure, moving from the traditional geographic-zone model to sector-based units such as Power, Coal, Steel, Petroleum, and Port, with the change effective from 1 November 2026. Alongside this, the force has been designated a Recognised Security Organisation (RSO) under the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code, formalising its role in maritime security.

Latest Developments

• The sector-based model is intended to build deeper, domain-specific security expertise — for instance, specialised port-security or power-sector-security units — rather than spreading generalist zonal commands across very different kinds of critical infrastructure.

• The CISF's new role as an RSO under the ISPS Code (a framework adopted by the International Maritime Organization after 9/11 to enhance ship and port facility security) consolidates its position as India's main security authority across the country's major seaports.

• This restructuring follows the CISF's steady expansion of mandate over the decades, from industrial undertakings to airports (post the 1999 Kandahar hijacking review) and metro systems.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• CISF, raised in 1969, operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs and is one of India's seven Central Armed Police Forces.

• The ISPS Code is an IMO framework for enhancing the security of ships and port facilities, adopted after the 9/11 attacks.

• CISF's new sector-based structure (Power, Coal, Steel, Petroleum, Port, etc.) takes effect from 1 November 2026.

6. Supreme Court Bars Mid-Course Fee Hikes in Professional Colleges

Basic Concept

Fee regulation for private professional colleges (engineering, medical, management, etc.) in India is primarily governed by state Fee Regulatory Committees and sector regulators such as the AICTE and the National Medical Commission, operating within the framework the Supreme Court itself laid down in landmark cases like T.M.A. Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka (2002) and P.A. Inamdar v. State of Maharashtra (2005), which balanced institutional autonomy with the state's power to prevent profiteering and capitation fees in education.

Core Context

The Supreme Court has ruled that students in professional courses must be informed of the complete fee structure for the entire duration of the course at the time of admission itself. Mid-course fee hikes, the Court held, are permissible only in unforeseeable or extraordinary circumstances. The bench cited NSSO survey data showing that fees for professional courses are disproportionately higher than for general degree courses, to underline the need for upfront transparency and predictability for students and families.

Latest Developments

• The ruling reinforces the principle from T.M.A. Pai and Inamdar that while private institutions enjoy autonomy in fee-fixing (subject to it being reasonable and non-exploitative), this autonomy cannot be used to spring surprise hikes on enrolled students mid-course.

• By anchoring its reasoning in NSSO data on the cost burden of professional education, the Court signalled that fee predictability is also a matter of access and equity, not just contract law between a student and an institution.

• The judgment is expected to standardise practice across AICTE- and NMC-regulated institutions, requiring fee regulatory committees to vet and approve the full multi-year fee structure in advance.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Fee Regulatory Committee mechanism for professional colleges draws its constitutional basis from the Supreme Court's T.M.A. Pai Foundation (2002) and P.A. Inamdar (2005) judgments.

• AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education) and the National Medical Commission (NMC) are key regulators overseeing technical and medical education fee frameworks respectively.

• The Supreme Court's 2026 ruling holds that mid-course fee hikes in professional courses are permissible only in unforeseeable or extraordinary circumstances.

7. The Machine-Readable Electoral Roll Demand and the SIR Audit

Basic Concept

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a constitutional body under Article 324, responsible for the "superintendence, direction and control" of elections, including the preparation of electoral rolls. The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls is a periodic, more rigorous verification exercise aimed at removing ineligible entries (such as duplicate, deceased, or shifted voters) and adding eligible new voters, distinct from the routine annual summary revision.

Core Context

The Congress party has renewed its demand for the Election Commission to release electoral rolls in a "machine-readable" format (rather than image-based PDFs that are hard to analyse programmatically), tying the demand to an ECI directive on the issue. Separately, a citizen-led audit of two polling booths in Delhi's Okhla constituency found more than 100 voters wrongly marked as absent, shifted, or dead during the ongoing Special Intensive Revision, with invited election officials reportedly not attending the public hearing on the findings.

Latest Developments

• Machine-readable rolls would allow political parties, researchers, and citizens to cross-verify entries at scale using software, rather than manually checking scanned PDF documents — a transparency demand that has grown alongside the expansion of SIR exercises.

• The Okhla audit findings feed into a broader debate about the accuracy safeguards built into SIR, including the claims-and-objections process that voters can use to correct wrongful deletions before rolls are finalised.

• Electoral roll integrity is a recurring theme in Indian polity discussions, intersecting with Article 326 (adult suffrage) and the Representation of the People Act, 1950, which governs roll preparation.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Election Commission of India derives its roll-preparation and election-superintendence powers from Article 324 of the Constitution.

• The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a more rigorous, periodic exercise to clean and update electoral rolls, distinct from the routine annual summary revision.

• The Representation of the People Act, 1950 governs the preparation and revision of electoral rolls in India.

8. Trade Margin Rationalisation on Anti-Cancer Drugs

Basic Concept

The National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA), set up under the Department of Pharmaceuticals, regulates the prices of essential and scheduled drugs in India under the Drugs (Prices Control) Order (DPCO), 2013. One of its tools, beyond capping the price of scheduled formulations outright, is "trade margin rationalisation" — capping the difference between a drug's price to the manufacturer/distributor and its final retail price — used in the past for cardiac stents, knee implants, and certain diabetes and cardiac drugs to improve affordability without disrupting the entire pricing chain.

Core Context

The government has moved to rationalise trade margins on 137 anti-cancer drugs, aiming to curb excessive mark-ups that have, in some cases, inflated retail prices by as much as 700% over the manufacturer's price. The NPPA's proposal would cap the trade margin at around 30%, which studies suggest could lower the maximum retail price of several high-value cancer drugs by 20-70%.

Latest Developments

• Trade margin rationalisation is distinct from direct price capping: it regulates the mark-up added by the distribution chain (stockists, retailers) rather than fixing an absolute ceiling price for the drug itself.

• Cancer treatment affordability has been a recurring policy concern, linked also to the Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana (generic medicine stores) and customs duty exemptions on select life-saving cancer drugs announced in recent Union Budgets.

• The move builds on NPPA's 2017 trade margin rationalisation for cardiac stents and knee implants, which is often cited as a precedent for using this tool to improve access to high-cost treatments.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The NPPA functions under the Drugs (Prices Control) Order (DPCO), 2013, to regulate prices of scheduled and essential medicines.

• Trade margin rationalisation caps the mark-up in the distribution chain rather than fixing an absolute retail price.

• The 2026 move covers 137 anti-cancer drugs, with a proposed trade margin cap of around 30%.

9. Ethanol Blending Policy: Sugar Out, Grain In

Basic Concept

India's Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme, administered by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas with the Ministry of Food and Public Distribution and the Department of Agriculture, aims to blend ethanol with petrol to cut crude oil import dependence, reduce the import bill, and support farm incomes. Feedstock for ethanol in India has historically come from sugarcane-based sources (sugarcane juice, B-heavy and C-heavy molasses) as well as grain-based sources such as surplus rice and maize (corn).

Core Context

Oil marketing companies (OMCs) have excluded sugar-based ethanol from their procurement tender for the 2026-27 ethanol supply year, following a government directive aimed at bringing sugar diversion toward ethanol down to zero. The shift increases reliance on grain-based feedstocks, even as it lowers the price incentive offered for maize-based ethanol.

Latest Developments

• The policy shift reflects a balancing act between three competing goals: energy security (ethanol blending to cut crude imports), food security (ensuring enough sugar remains available domestically and for export, and protecting the overall cereal stock), and farmer income support.

• India had already achieved its original 20% ethanol blending (E20) target ahead of schedule, shifting current policy debates toward feedstock mix and sustainability rather than just the blending percentage.

• A move away from sugar-based ethanol could affect sugarcane farmers' alternative revenue stream from mills, even as it is projected to ease pressure on sugar availability and prices for consumers.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme targets blending ethanol with petrol to reduce crude oil import dependence.

• Ethanol feedstocks in India include sugarcane-based sources (molasses, juice) and grain-based sources (rice, maize).

• India achieved the 20% ethanol blending (E20) target ahead of its original 2025 deadline.

10. India's Crude Oil Import Basket Hits a Record Russia-UAE-US Share

Basic Concept

India imports over 85% of its crude oil requirement, making energy security and import diversification a core part of its economic and strategic policy. The "Indian Crude Basket" is the weighted average price of crude oil India imports, tracked by the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC), and is a key reference figure for domestic fuel pricing and the oil import bill. India also maintains Strategic Petroleum Reserves (underground storage facilities) to cushion against global supply shocks, and participates in global energy governance as an Association country of the International Energy Agency (IEA) rather than as a full member.

Core Context

India drew a record 66.8% of its crude oil imports in August 2026 from just three sources — Russia, the UAE, and the US — with Russia remaining the single largest supplier, even as its share has fluctuated amid Western sanctions pressure and price dynamics.

Latest Developments

• Russia has been India's largest crude supplier since 2022, after Indian refiners began buying discounted Russian crude following Western sanctions linked to the Ukraine conflict, reshaping India's traditional reliance on Gulf suppliers.

• A high concentration of imports from a few source countries raises questions about supply diversification risk, even as it has helped Indian refiners secure competitively priced crude.

• India's status as an IEA Association country (not a full member) means it participates in IEA activities and data-sharing without being bound by the full member obligations, such as mandatory strategic reserve levels.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC) tracks the "Indian Crude Basket", the weighted average price of India's crude oil imports.

• India has been a full Association country (not a full member) of the International Energy Agency (IEA).

• Russia, the UAE, and the US together supplied a record 66.8% of India's crude oil imports in August 2026, with Russia as the top supplier.

11. Big Push for Jammu & Kashmir Connectivity

Basic Concept

Jammu & Kashmir's historical connectivity bottlenecks — high-altitude terrain, harsh winters, and limited rail and road links — have long been cited as a constraint on its economic integration and tourism potential. Over the past decade, the Union Government has prioritised a cluster of flagship infrastructure projects to connect the Kashmir Valley with the rest of the country by rail, all-weather road, and expanded air links, framed as both a developmental and strategic priority for the border region.

Core Context

India is expanding rail, road, tunnel, and airport connectivity in Jammu & Kashmir. Key highlights include the Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL), the Chenab Rail Bridge (the world's highest railway arch bridge), the Anji Khad cable-stayed rail bridge (India's first), the Zojila and Sonamarg road tunnels, the Delhi-Amritsar-Katra Expressway, and an expansion of Srinagar's airport.

Latest Developments

• The USBRL project finally gave the Kashmir Valley its first direct rail link to the rest of India, ending decades of rail isolation for the region.

• The Chenab Rail Bridge, standing taller than the Eiffel Tower, and the Anji Khad bridge (India's first cable-stayed rail bridge) are showcased as engineering milestones enabling all-weather rail access through difficult Himalayan terrain.

• The Zojila tunnel, once complete, will provide all-weather road connectivity between Srinagar and Leh, a route currently closed for several months each winter due to heavy snowfall.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) is the flagship project giving the Kashmir Valley its first rail connectivity to the rest of India.

• The Chenab Rail Bridge is the world's highest railway arch bridge, and the Anji Khad bridge is India's first cable-stayed railway bridge.

• The Zojila tunnel, under construction, will provide all-weather connectivity on the Srinagar-Leh axis.

12. Kufri Jamunia: India's Biofortified Purple Potato

Basic Concept

Biofortification is the process of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value, aimed at addressing "hidden hunger" — micronutrient deficiencies that persist even when calorie intake is adequate. India's premier potato research body, the ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute (ICAR-CPRI), headquartered in Shimla, develops improved potato varieties suited to different Indian agro-climatic zones, alongside other biofortification efforts such as iron-rich pearl millet and zinc-rich wheat varieties promoted by ICAR.

Core Context

ICAR-CPRI has been promoting Kufri Jamunia, a biofortified purple potato variety released in 2024, as a tool to tackle hidden hunger. Its distinctive purple colour comes from anthocyanins, antioxidant pigments, and the variety is recommended for cultivation in the North Indian plains.

Latest Developments

• Anthocyanins, the pigments responsible for Kufri Jamunia's purple colour, are also associated with antioxidant properties that may help counter oxidative stress in the body, adding a nutritional dimension beyond the usual calorie/starch value of potatoes.

• Biofortified potato varieties like Kufri Jamunia sit alongside other ICAR biofortified crops (such as iron- and zinc-rich wheat, and vitamin A-rich sweet potato) as part of India's broader strategy to combat micronutrient malnutrition through agriculture rather than only through supplementation.

• The North Indian plains remain India's major potato-growing belt, making region-specific variety recommendations like this one agronomically significant for adoption at scale.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute (ICAR-CPRI) is headquartered in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh.

• Kufri Jamunia is a biofortified purple potato variety released in 2024, coloured by antioxidant anthocyanin pigments.

• Biofortification targets "hidden hunger" — micronutrient deficiency despite adequate calorie intake.

13. NHRC, Child Rights, and the Use of Minors in Protests

Basic Concept

The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) is a statutory body set up under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, mandated to inquire into violations of human rights, though it has only recommendatory (not binding) powers and cannot directly prosecute or compel compliance. Child rights protections in India draw on the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, and the Constitution's provisions against child exploitation under Article 24 and Article 39(e)/(f) as Directive Principles.

Core Context

The NHRC took cognisance of reports that children were used in a Mumbai protest, reportedly as human shields, and ordered an investigation into the alleged child rights violations. Separately, an ICSSR-supported study of Delhi children aged 9 to 14 found heavy daily internet use linked to anxiety, sleep problems, and mood changes, with the study recommending a multi-stakeholder digital-safety framework and noting gender differences in exposure.

Latest Developments

• The NHRC's intervention in the Mumbai case highlights the Commission's structural limitations — including questions about its independence and a proposed downgrade of its GANHRI (Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions) accreditation — which affect how much weight its recommendations ultimately carry.

• The internet-use study adds an emerging dimension to child welfare policy: beyond protection from physical exploitation (as in the Mumbai case), there is growing attention to digital-age risks to children's mental health and development.

• Both strands point toward the same underlying UPSC-relevant theme: the gap between India's child-protection legal framework and effective, independent enforcement mechanisms.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The NHRC was established under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, and its recommendations are not legally binding.

• GANHRI (Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions) accredits national human rights bodies worldwide; a downgrade can affect an institution's international standing.

• The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 is India's principal legislation on child protection and rehabilitation.

14. PUFFINS: NASA's New Mission to Study Interstellar Dust

Basic Concept

SmallSat (small satellite) missions are low-cost, rapidly developed spacecraft increasingly used by NASA and other space agencies to carry out focused scientific investigations that do not require a full flagship-class mission. Interstellar dust grains, microscopic particles that drift through space between star systems, carry clues about the chemical and physical processes shaping the galaxy, and are typically studied using instruments that measure the polarisation (orientation) of light passing through or scattering off them.

Core Context

NASA has selected Ramya Anche, an Indian-origin astronomer, as Principal Investigator of PUFFINS, a new SmallSat mission targeted for launch around 2030. The mission will use ultraviolet spectropolarimetry to study interstellar dust grains, with Indian institutions among its collaborating partners.

Latest Developments

• Spectropolarimetry combines spectroscopy (analysing light across wavelengths) with polarimetry (analysing the orientation of light waves), giving scientists a richer picture of the size, shape, and composition of dust grains than either technique alone.

• The selection of an Indian-origin scientist to lead a NASA SmallSat mission, with Indian institutional collaboration, reflects the deepening India-US cooperation in space science research beyond government-to-government agreements like the India-US framework for human spaceflight cooperation.

• SmallSat missions like PUFFINS are part of a broader trend of "faster, cheaper" focused science missions that complement large flagship observatories such as the James Webb Space Telescope.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• PUFFINS is a NASA SmallSat mission targeted for launch around 2030, led by Principal Investigator Ramya Anche.

• The mission will use ultraviolet spectropolarimetry to study interstellar dust grains.

• SmallSats are low-cost, quickly developed satellites used for focused scientific objectives.

15. Mars on Earth: India's New Planetary Analogue Sites

Basic Concept

Planetary analogue sites are locations on Earth whose geology, climate, or mineralogy closely resembles conditions on other planetary bodies such as Mars, making them valuable testbeds for developing and validating instruments, rover technologies, and search strategies before they are sent on actual planetary missions. Well-known international analogue sites include the Atacama Desert in Chile and Utah's deserts in the US; identifying new, scientifically useful analogue sites within India adds to the country's planetary science research infrastructure.

Core Context

Scientists from Kerala have identified new Mars-like geological sites in Tamil Nadu, India, and in Chile, whose mineralogy resembles that found on the Martian surface. The sites contain minerals such as gypsum and melanterite, which form through water-rock interactions, and the study used a Laser Raman Spectrometer, a portable instrument that identifies minerals from their characteristic light-scattering signatures, to confirm the mineral compositions.

Latest Developments

• Gypsum and melanterite are both hydrated sulphate minerals that form in the presence of water, making their detection on Mars (by rover missions like Curiosity and Perseverance) important evidence for the planet's wetter geological past.

• A Laser Raman Spectrometer is also the kind of instrument actually carried on planetary rovers (such as on ESA's ExoMars rover), so testing it on Earth analogue sites helps refine its use before a mission ever reaches Mars.

• The identification of Indian analogue sites (in Tamil Nadu) is significant for India's own planetary ambitions, including future Mars exploration planning following the Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission) success.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• Planetary analogue sites are Earth locations with geology resembling other planets, used to test instruments and rover technologies.

• Gypsum and melanterite are hydrated sulphate minerals that form through water-rock interaction — relevant to evidence of past water on Mars.

• India's Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan), launched in 2013, made India the first country to reach Mars orbit in its first attempt.

16. Satellite Mega-Constellations and the Fight for a Quiet Sky

Basic Concept

Radio astronomy relies on detecting extremely faint natural radio signals from distant cosmic objects, a task that requires carefully protected, interference-free frequency bands. The rapid growth of low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellite mega-constellations — such as Starlink, OneWeb, and China's Guowang — built primarily to provide global broadband internet, has raised growing concern among astronomers that unintended radio emissions from thousands of satellites could swamp the faint signals radio telescopes are designed to detect.

Core Context

A study published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society found that satellites from the Starlink, OneWeb, and Guowang constellations emit radio signals that interfere with ground-based radio astronomy observations. The study's authors have called for international rules and continuous monitoring of satellite emissions to protect the radio spectrum used for scientific research.

Latest Developments

• Unlike visible-light "light pollution" from satellite trails (which mainly affects optical astronomy images), this interference affects radio astronomy's ability to detect faint natural signals across large swathes of the spectrum, even from satellites that are not actively transmitting a signal.

• The issue sits at the intersection of space policy and science: the same mega-constellations enabling internet access in remote and underserved regions (including parts of India, through services like Starlink's entry into the Indian market) are also the ones straining the radio-quiet zones astronomers depend on.

• International coordination on this issue typically runs through bodies like the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which allocates and protects radio spectrum bands, including those reserved for radio astronomy.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• Mega-constellations such as Starlink, OneWeb, and China's Guowang are large fleets of low-Earth-orbit satellites providing global broadband.

• Radio astronomy requires protected, interference-free radio-frequency bands to detect faint cosmic signals.

• The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the UN agency responsible for allocating and protecting global radio-frequency spectrum, including bands reserved for radio astronomy.

17. Practice MCQs

Practice MCQs

Q1. Consider the following statements regarding the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF):
1. It was adopted at the 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
2. It sets a target of protecting at least 50% of the Earth's land and sea area by 2030.
3. It includes a target to mobilise at least USD 200 billion a year for biodiversity from all sources.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) Only 1 and 3

• (b) Only 2 and 3

• (c) Only 1

• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a) Only 1 and 3

Explanation: The KMGBF was adopted at CBD-COP15 (2022) in Montreal, hence "Kunming-Montreal". Its well-known "30x30" target is to protect at least 30% (not 50%) of land and sea by 2030. It does include a target to mobilise at least USD 200 billion a year for biodiversity, with USD 30 billion a year as international finance to developing countries by 2030. So statements 1 and 3 are correct, statement 2 is incorrect.

Q2. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), in the news recently in the context of its 153rd Assembly, is best described as:

• (a) A specialised agency of the United Nations with binding authority over member states

• (b) A global organisation of national parliaments that holds permanent observer status at the UN General Assembly

• (c) A judicial body that adjudicates disputes between member parliaments

• (d) An agency under the World Trade Organization for parliamentary trade oversight

Answer: (b) A global organisation of national parliaments that holds permanent observer status at the UN General Assembly

Explanation: The IPU, founded in 1889, is the global organisation of national parliaments. It is not a UN specialised agency and has no binding authority, but it holds permanent observer status at the UN General Assembly and works closely with the UN on democracy and governance issues.

Q3. With reference to the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), consider the following statements:
1. It was established under UN Security Council Resolution 1701 in 2006.
2. India has contributed troops to UNIFIL since 1998.
3. Its mandate has been extended for a final time until 31 December 2026.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) Only 1 and 2

• (b) Only 2 and 3

• (c) Only 1 and 3

• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) Only 2 and 3

Explanation: UNIFIL was originally established under UNSC Resolution 425 (1978); Resolution 1701 (2006) only expanded its mandate after the Israel-Hezbollah war. India has contributed peacekeepers to UNIFIL since 1998, and its mandate has indeed been extended for the last time until 31 December 2026. So statements 2 and 3 are correct, statement 1 is incorrect.

Q4. The Central Industrial Security Force (CISF), recently in the news for restructuring into sector-based units, functions under which of the following?

• (a) Ministry of Defence

• (b) Ministry of Home Affairs

• (c) Ministry of Civil Aviation

• (d) Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways

Answer: (b) Ministry of Home Affairs

Explanation: CISF, one of India's Central Armed Police Forces, was raised in 1969 and functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs, even though it provides security cover to installations under various other ministries.

Q5. The National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)'s "trade margin rationalisation", recently applied to anti-cancer drugs, refers to:

• (a) Fixing an absolute retail price ceiling on all medicines sold in India

• (b) Capping the mark-up added across the distribution chain between the manufacturer's price and the final retail price

• (c) Providing direct cash subsidies to cancer patients for medicine purchases

• (d) Banning the import of foreign-manufactured cancer drugs

Answer: (b) Capping the mark-up added across the distribution chain between the manufacturer's price and the final retail price

Explanation: Trade margin rationalisation caps the difference between the price to the manufacturer/distributor and the final retail price, rather than fixing an absolute ceiling price for the drug itself. It was earlier used for cardiac stents and knee implants.

Q6. Consider the following statements about India's Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme:
1. Ethanol feedstock in India is sourced only from sugarcane-based molasses.
2. India achieved its 20% ethanol blending (E20) target ahead of its original deadline.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) Only 1

• (b) Only 2

• (c) Both 1 and 2

• (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (b) Only 2

Explanation: India's ethanol feedstock comes from both sugarcane-based sources (molasses, juice) and grain-based sources (rice, maize), not sugarcane alone, making statement 1 incorrect. India did achieve its 20% blending (E20) target ahead of its original 2025 deadline, making statement 2 correct.

Q7. Which of the following statements correctly describes India's Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) project?

• (a) It connects Srinagar to Leh by an all-weather road tunnel

• (b) It gave the Kashmir Valley its first direct rail link to the rest of India and includes the Chenab Rail Bridge, the world's highest railway arch bridge

• (c) It is an airport expansion project in Jammu and Kashmir

• (d) It is a hydroelectric power project on the Chenab river

Answer: (b) It gave the Kashmir Valley its first direct rail link to the rest of India and includes the Chenab Rail Bridge, the world's highest railway arch bridge

Explanation: The USBRL is a railway project that finally connected the Kashmir Valley by rail to the rest of India, and it includes landmark structures such as the Chenab Rail Bridge (the world's highest railway arch bridge) and the Anji Khad cable-stayed bridge. The Zojila tunnel (Srinagar-Leh road link) is a separate project.