Current Affairs — 26 October 2026

1. Frontier Nagaland Territorial Authority (FNTA) Bill, 2026

Basic Concept

India's Constitution allows special administrative arrangements for regions with distinct ethnic, cultural or developmental needs, most famously through the Sixth Schedule (for tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram) and Article 371 (special provisions for several north-eastern and other states). Nagaland itself is governed under Article 371A, which protects Naga customary law, land and resources, and requires the state assembly's consent before central laws on these subjects apply to it. Within this framework, sub-regional autonomy demands by smaller tribal groups inside a state are usually resolved either through a Sixth Schedule-style autonomous council or through a specially legislated statutory authority, as Parliament and state assemblies have done in the past for regions such as Bodoland or Gorkhaland.

Core Context

The Frontier Nagaland Territorial Authority (FNTA) Bill, 2026, passed unanimously by the Nagaland Legislative Assembly and enacted in consultation with the Ministry of Home Affairs, has received Presidential assent. It creates a statutory, autonomous self-governing body for six eastern districts of Nagaland — Tuensang, Mon, Longleng, Kiphire, Noklak and Shamator — home to tribes such as the Konyak, Chang, Phom and Sangtam. The Bill operationalises a Memorandum of Agreement signed on 5 February 2026 between the Centre, the Nagaland government and the Eastern Nagaland Peoples' Organisation (ENPO), which had long demanded greater autonomy for the region.

Latest Developments

• The FNTA will enjoy administrative and financial autonomy, including the power to prepare its own Annual Development Plans and set up dedicated planning and finance mechanisms, while the Nagaland Legislative Assembly retains overall legislative authority over the region.

• Funding will come from a State budget allocation proportionate to the region's population and area, supplemented by Special Development Grants from the Ministry of Home Affairs.

• The arrangement keeps Nagaland's existing boundaries and statehood intact — it is a case of asymmetric administrative devolution rather than the creation of a new state or Union Territory.

• It is being presented as a model of cooperative federalism, designed to address regional development disparities and long-pending tribal autonomy demands without altering the political map of the Northeast.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The six districts covered by the FNTA are Tuensang, Mon, Longleng, Kiphire, Noklak and Shamator, located in eastern Nagaland.

• The ENPO represents seven Naga tribes of eastern Nagaland: Konyak, Chang, Phom, Sangtam, Yimkhiung, Khiamniungan and Tikhir.

• Article 371A gives Nagaland special protection for Naga customary law, religious practices, and ownership/transfer of land and resources.

• The Sixth Schedule (Articles 244 and 275) provides for autonomous district and regional councils in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram — distinct from the FNTA model, which is a separate statutory authority, not a Sixth Schedule council.

2. National Media Council and Media Regulation

Basic Concept

India's media regulatory landscape is fragmented by medium. The Press Council of India, a statutory but non-punitive body under the Press Council Act, 1978, oversees print media and can only censure, not penalise. Television is largely self-regulated through bodies like the News Broadcasting and Digital Standards Authority (NBDSA), operating alongside the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995. Digital news and OTT platforms fall under the IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, which created a three-tier grievance redressal mechanism but has drawn criticism for allowing executive overreach. Films are separately regulated by the Central Board of Film Certification under the Cinematograph Act, 1952. This patchwork has long fuelled debate on whether India needs one converged regulator for all media.

Core Context

Calls for a National Media Council (NMC) — a single statutory authority to regulate print, television and digital media together — have regained momentum following a crackdown on freelance journalists and content creators during protests in Delhi in October 2026. While hearing a public interest litigation on protecting freelance journalists, the Supreme Court questioned how the term "journalist" should be legally defined in the digital era and flagged the need for a unified regulatory protocol. The proposed NMC draws on the Press Club of India's 2024 Media Transparency and Accountability Bill.

Latest Developments

• The proposed NMC would have stronger enforcement powers than the Press Council of India, including fines, licence suspension and mandated apologies for serious ethical breaches.

• It would set professional criteria (such as a journalism degree or diploma) to distinguish accredited journalists — including freelancers and camerapersons — from social-media content creators, bypassing the current government accreditation quota system tied to circulation or subscriber numbers.

• A proposed "co-regulation" model would combine statutory backing with self-regulation, with a selection committee insulated from the executive, potentially including the Chief Justice of India and the Leader of the Opposition.

• In Bennett Coleman & Co. vs. Union of India (1972), the Supreme Court held that financial measures which strangle the press violate the freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1)(a) — a precedent frequently cited in debates on press regulation.

• Comparable international models include Australia's News Media Bargaining Code (requiring Big Tech to pay news publishers) and the European Union's Digital Services Act (mandating algorithmic transparency from large platforms).

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Press Council of India functions under the Press Council Act, 1978, and can only issue moral censure, not penalties.

• The IT Rules, 2021, created a three-tier grievance redressal mechanism for digital media and OTT platforms.

• Under the IT Act, 2000, Section 69A permits blocking of content, while Section 79(3)(b) conditions an intermediary's safe-harbour protection on acting against unlawful content.

• The Cinematograph Act, 1952 governs film certification through the CBFC; broadcast television largely self-regulates via bodies like the NBDSA under the Cable TV Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995.

3. Madras High Court on Use of Children in Political Campaigns

Basic Concept

The Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RPA) regulates the conduct of elections in India. Section 123 of the Act defines various "corrupt practices" — such as bribery and undue influence — which, if proved, can lead to an election being declared void under Section 100. Separately, the Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 (amended in 2016) protects children from being employed in hazardous or exploitative work, and the Election Commission of India (ECI) follows a "zero tolerance" administrative policy against using children in campaign activities such as rallies, flag-carrying or sloganeering.

Core Context

The Madras High Court held that persuasion of voters by children appealing to their parents does not amount to "undue influence" or a "corrupt practice" under Section 123(2) of the RPA, 1951, since adult voters retain the final say over their own choices. At the same time, the Court strongly criticised the use of children in election campaigning as being "in bad taste," reflecting "poor parenting," and constituting "a cheap and politically motivated act," and urged Parliament to consider whether such use of children should be made an explicit ground for setting aside an election.

Latest Developments

• The Court noted that the RPA, 1951 currently has no explicit provision that automatically voids an election merely because children were used in campaigning, revealing a legislative gap.

• It clarified that merely accompanying a parent or guardian near a political leader, without actively campaigning, is not by itself a violation of ECI directives.

• Political parties and candidates are nonetheless obligated to comply with the Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, and District Election Officers/Returning Officers must ensure compliance by the election machinery.

• The ruling sits alongside international frameworks such as the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which recognises children's right to expression while distinguishing genuine civic participation from manipulation.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• Section 123(2) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 defines "undue influence" as a corrupt practice; Section 100 lists grounds for declaring an election void.

• The ECI's policy on children in elections is an administrative "zero tolerance" directive, not a statutory provision under the RPA.

• The Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 was amended in 2016 to tighten restrictions on child labour.

• The ruling came from the Madras High Court, exercising its writ/election jurisdiction, and calls on Parliament (not the Election Commission) to close the legislative gap.

4. The Cabinet Secretary

Basic Concept

The Cabinet Secretariat, functioning directly under the Prime Minister, is the apex administrative body assisting the Union Cabinet. It traces its lineage to the Executive Council of the Governor-General under the Indian Councils Act, 1861, was renamed the Cabinet Secretariat in 1946 under the Interim Government, and was formally established in its present form in 1950 with N.R. Pillai as independent India's first Cabinet Secretary. Article 77(3) of the Constitution empowers the President to make rules for the more convenient transaction of government business and for allocating business among Ministers; the Cabinet Secretariat administers these Allocation of Business Rules, 1961 and Transaction of Business Rules, 1961.

Core Context

The Cabinet Secretariat's role came into focus after the Cabinet Secretariat declined to initiate disciplinary action against a senior IAS officer following a complaint by two Election Commissioners over certain internal administrative orders — reviving attention on the post's powers, its position in the bureaucratic hierarchy, and its role in managing inter-service and inter-ministerial friction.

Latest Developments

• The Cabinet Secretary is the senior-most civil servant in India, ranking 11th in the Indian Order of Precedence, and serves as the ex-officio chairperson of the Civil Services Board, which recommends senior bureaucratic appointments to the Appointments Committee of the Cabinet.

• The post heads the Committee of Secretaries, which is the principal forum for resolving inter-ministerial and inter-departmental disputes.

• Under Rule 56(d) of the All India Services (Death-cum-Retirement Benefits) Rules, 1958, the Union government can extend the Cabinet Secretary's tenure by up to five years beyond the normal retirement age.

• The Cabinet Secretariat also coordinates the government's response during national emergencies and facilitates Centre-State administrative cooperation through State Chief Secretaries.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• Article 77(3) is the constitutional basis for the Allocation of Business Rules and Transaction of Business Rules, administered by the Cabinet Secretariat.

• N.R. Pillai was independent India's first Cabinet Secretary (1950).

• The Cabinet Secretary heads the Committee of Secretaries and chairs the Civil Services Board.

• The Cabinet Secretariat traces its institutional origin to the Executive Council of the Governor-General under the Indian Councils Act, 1861.

5. Siang Upper Multipurpose Project (SUMP) Protests

Basic Concept

The Siang River, which becomes the Brahmaputra after entering Assam, is one of India's major transboundary rivers originating in Tibet (where it is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo). India's north-eastern states, especially Arunachal Pradesh, lie in a seismically active zone (classified Zone V, the highest earthquake-risk category), which makes large hydropower projects there both strategically significant for harnessing hydro-potential and ecologically sensitive given the risk of landslides, flash floods and seismic damage. Large infrastructure projects in tribal areas often require balancing the "national project" rationale of the Centre/State with the consent and livelihood concerns of indigenous communities under provisions protecting tribal land and self-governance in the Northeast.

Core Context

Protests have intensified in Arunachal Pradesh's Siang and Upper Siang districts against the proposed 11,000 MW Siang Upper Multipurpose Project (SUMP), a dam planned on the Siang river. The state government, which considers SUMP a "national project," justifies it partly as a way to regulate floods and counter the effects of China's planned 60,000 MW Medog dam further upstream on the Yarlung Tsangpo. Local organisations, including the Siang Indigenous Farmers' Forum (SIFF) and Adi Bane Kelang United (representing the indigenous Adi community), oppose the project, dispute the state's claim of local support (based on an MoU signed with only 110 families), and have resisted the Pre-Feasibility Report survey process, leading to a sustained security deployment and several incidents of unrest.

Latest Developments

• Opponents cite seismic and flash-flood risks given the region's high earthquake vulnerability, and question whether the downstream Siang's flow will even be significantly affected by the upstream Chinese dam, undercutting the stated rationale for SUMP.

• Enforcement actions have included a CBI notice under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act against a SIFF legal advisor over alleged unregistered foreign contributions, and police action under the Prevention of Damage to Public Property Act, 1984 against several protesters.

• Large paramilitary deployments at proposed dam sites and restrictions on local news coverage and social media pages have drawn criticism of excessive use of force against indigenous protesters.

• The episode illustrates the recurring tension in India's north-eastern hydropower policy between national strategic/energy objectives and the land rights, consent and ecological concerns of indigenous communities.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Siang river becomes the Brahmaputra after entering Assam; in Tibet it is called the Yarlung Tsangpo.

• Arunachal Pradesh falls in Seismic Zone V, the highest earthquake-risk classification used in India.

• SUMP's proposed capacity (11,000 MW) is cited alongside China's planned Medog dam (60,000 MW) on the same river system upstream.

• The Adi community is one of the major indigenous tribal groups of Arunachal Pradesh affected by the project.

6. SAMHiTA Project

Basic Concept

India has, in recent years, used cultural and civilizational diplomacy — especially around shared Buddhist heritage — as a tool of soft power with South and Southeast Asian neighbours. Preservation of ancient manuscripts is a recognised component of safeguarding intangible and documentary cultural heritage, often undertaken in partnership with international bodies such as UNESCO or through bilateral cultural-cooperation agreements.

Core Context

SAMHiTA (South Asian Manuscript Histories and Textual Archive) is an India-supported initiative, implemented by the India International Centre, New Delhi with Government of India grant assistance, to digitise and preserve ancient South Asian manuscripts. Under a Memorandum of Understanding signed in July 2026, Colombo's Gangaramaya Temple became Sri Lanka's first participating institution, with a target to digitise 100 manuscripts on Buddhist traditions, philosophy, languages and cultural practices by November 2026.

Latest Developments

• The project aims to protect historical manuscripts and preserve shared religious and intellectual traditions by making them digitally accessible for scholars and the public.

• It strengthens India-Sri Lanka civilisational and people-to-people ties built around shared Buddhist heritage, complementing other India-funded Buddhist-circuit and heritage-conservation initiatives in the neighbourhood.

• The initiative reflects India's broader "Neighbourhood First" and cultural diplomacy approach, using heritage preservation as a tool to deepen bilateral goodwill.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• SAMHiTA stands for South Asian Manuscript Histories and Textual Archive.

• It is implemented by the India International Centre, New Delhi.

• Gangaramaya Temple, Colombo is Sri Lanka's first participating institution under this project.

• The MoU for Sri Lanka's participation was signed in July 2026, targeting completion by November 2026.

7. Long-Term Capital Gains (LTCG) Tax on Equities

Basic Concept

Capital gains tax in India is levied on profit from the sale of a capital asset and is classified as short-term (STCG) or long-term (LTCG) depending on the holding period. For listed equity shares, equity-oriented mutual funds and domestic equity ETFs, a holding period of more than 12 months qualifies for LTCG treatment; shorter holdings attract STCG. Securities Transaction Tax (STT), introduced in 2004, is a tax on the value of securities transacted on recognised stock exchanges.

Core Context

The Union Finance Minister has stated that the government "remains open to stakeholder debate and review" of the LTCG tax on equities, reviving discussion on India's capital gains tax regime. Currently, LTCG on listed equities above an exemption of ₹1.25 lakh in a financial year is taxed at 12.5% (plus applicable surcharge and 4% Health and Education Cess), with no benefit of inflation indexation and no Section 87A rebate available against it under the new tax regime.

Latest Developments

• The Union Budget 2024 had already raised the equity LTCG rate from 10% to 12.5% while simultaneously raising the annual exemption limit from ₹1 lakh to ₹1.25 lakh.

• Short-term capital gains (STCG) on equity held for 12 months or less are taxed at 20%; the gap between the LTCG and STCG rates is designed to incentivise longer holding periods and discourage speculative short-term trading.

• Long-term capital losses can only be set off against long-term capital gains, and unadjusted losses can be carried forward for 8 assessment years, provided the income tax return is filed within the due date.

• Equity LTCG was fully exempt from 2004 (when STT was introduced) until the Union Budget 2018 reintroduced a 10% LTCG tax, with gains accrued up to 31 January 2018 grandfathered (exempted).

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The current equity LTCG rate is 12.5% on gains exceeding ₹1.25 lakh per year, applicable to assets held for more than 12 months.

• STT (Securities Transaction Tax) cannot be deducted while computing capital gains for tax purposes.

• Equity LTCG does not get the benefit of indexation, unlike LTCG on several other asset classes.

• The debate reflects the classic policy trade-off between encouraging long-term capital market participation and ensuring equitable taxation of investment income.

8. National SARAS Mela 2026

Basic Concept

The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) is the Government of India's flagship programme for rural poverty alleviation, built around mobilising rural women into Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and providing them credit linkages, skill training and market access. A key challenge for SHG-based rural enterprises has long been market access — connecting products made in villages to buyers in cities and institutions. The SARAS Mela platform, first launched nationally in Delhi in 1999, was created to address exactly this gap.

Core Context

The National SARAS Mela 2026 was held in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh — notably, the first National SARAS Mela ever held outside the Delhi-NCR region — bringing together women entrepreneurs from 34 States and Union Territories to showcase handlooms, handicrafts, textiles, natural products and processed foods from SHG enterprises under DAY-NRLM.

Latest Developments

• The Mela supports the Lakhpati Didi initiative, which aims to help SHG households sustainably earn at least ₹1 lakh a year, by improving branding, direct sales and buyer-seller linkages for rural women entrepreneurs.

• Digital market access is being promoted through the eSARAS online platform, a dedicated SARAS Mela mobile app, and UPI-based payments at the Mela, reflecting the broader push to digitally integrate rural livelihoods with mainstream markets.

• Holding the national edition outside Delhi-NCR for the first time signals a deliberate decentralisation strategy to give other regions of India greater visibility and market access for their SHG products.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• SARAS Mela operates under DAY-NRLM, the Ministry of Rural Development's flagship rural livelihoods mission.

• The first National SARAS Mela was held in Delhi in 1999.

• The 2026 edition, held in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, was the first national edition held outside Delhi-NCR.

• The Lakhpati Didi initiative targets a minimum sustainable annual household income of ₹1 lakh for SHG members.

9. Agrivoltaics in India

Basic Concept

India has set a target of 500 GW of total renewable energy capacity by 2030, of which a substantial share is to come from solar photovoltaic (PV) power. However, ground-mounted solar installations require significant land — roughly two hectares per MW — creating potential competition with agricultural land use in a country where land is a scarce and contested resource. Agrivoltaics, the practice of combining solar power generation with crop cultivation on the same land, has emerged globally as a way to resolve this land-use tension.

Core Context

Agrivoltaic installations are gaining attention in India as a dual-use solution that lets farmers generate solar power without taking land out of agricultural production. In a representative case from Madhya Pradesh, a farmer converted rocky, previously uncultivable land into productive farmland and added a 4.5 MW agrivoltaic plant generating up to 25,000 units of electricity daily, financed partly through the PM-KUSUM scheme, with surplus power sold to the grid under a long-term agreement with the state government.

Latest Developments

• In agrivoltaic set-ups, solar panels are typically mounted 11–13 feet high with wide spacing, allowing tractors to pass underneath while crops such as strawberries, lettuce, broccoli, tomatoes and cabbage grow in the shade, which also reduces soil evaporation and protects crops from extreme heat.

• Experts have suggested a phased target of reaching around 15 GW of agrivoltaic capacity by 2030, noting that allocating even about 1% of agricultural, barren, fallow and uncultivated land to agrivoltaics could unlock significant renewable capacity — with fallow and uncultivated land alone estimated to offer around 117.74 GW of potential.

• Some newer vertical bifacial panel designs can preserve over 90% of the land for cultivation, minimising the trade-off between power generation and crop yield.

• Beyond electricity, farmers benefit from lease income from solar developers, lower electricity costs, options for livestock grazing between panel rows, and solar-powered irrigation equipment.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• India's renewable energy target is 500 GW of total capacity by 2030, including a large solar PV component.

• Ground-mounted solar requires roughly two hectares of land per MW of installed capacity.

• PM-KUSUM is a scheme that supports solar energy adoption by farmers, including solarisation of agricultural land and irrigation pumps.

• Agrivoltaics is being promoted in India as a way to meet renewable energy targets without reducing the area under agricultural cultivation.

10. Biomarkers and Early Disease Detection

Basic Concept

Biomarkers, or chemical signatures, are measurable biological indicators — usually found in blood, cerebrospinal fluid or other body fluids — that reflect normal biological processes, disease states, or the body's response to treatment. Because many diseases alter specific molecules well before visible symptoms appear, analytical tools such as spectrometers and chromatographs can detect these changes, opening the door to pre-symptomatic diagnosis. India has invested in large-scale genomic and biomarker research infrastructure, including the GenomeIndia Project (launched January 2020, funded by the Department of Biotechnology), which has sequenced whole genomes of over 10,000 individuals.

Core Context

Scientists have highlighted the growing potential of blood-based biomarkers for the early diagnosis of neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, offering a less invasive alternative to lumbar punctures or PET scans. India's precision medicine market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 16% and exceed USD 5 billion by 2030, with initiatives like IISc's BHARAT Study (under its Longevity India Programme) working to build an Indian baseline for biomarkers of healthy ageing.

Latest Developments

• Key biomarkers include tau protein (p-tau217) and amyloid-beta for Alzheimer's, alpha-synuclein for Parkinson's, and Neurofilament Light (NfL) as a general, non-specific marker of neurological damage across multiple disorders.

• Persistent challenges include limited specificity (confounding factors like age, kidney function and medications can distort results), high cost and limited availability of advanced immunoassay testing outside metro centres, and a lack of standardisation across laboratories.

• Testing asymptomatic individuals raises ethical concerns around creating anxious "patients-in-waiting" and potential discrimination in insurance or employment based on biomarker results.

• Suggested policy responses include supporting indigenous R&D for affordable diagnostic reagents, unified ICMR/CDSCO testing guidelines, legal safeguards for genetic and biomarker data privacy, and building diagnostic capacity at district-level hospitals.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The GenomeIndia Project is funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and has sequenced whole genomes of over 10,000 Indians.

• ICMR (biomedical research) and CDSCO (drug and medical device regulation) are the key Indian regulatory bodies relevant to standardising biomarker-based diagnostics.

• Comparable global genome initiatives include the All of Us Research Program (USA) and the 100,000 Genomes Project (UK).

• Biomarker-based tests allow earlier, less invasive diagnosis compared to traditional methods like lumbar puncture or PET imaging.

11. Ashoke Sen Wins the 2026 Oskar Klein Medal

Basic Concept

The Oskar Klein Medal, established in 1988 by Stockholm University and the Nobel Committee for Physics, honours the Swedish physicist Oskar Klein (1894–1977), who along with Theodor Kaluza developed the Kaluza-Klein theory — an early attempt to unify gravity and electromagnetism using an additional spatial dimension. The medal recognises outstanding contributions to theoretical physics, particularly in areas building on Klein's legacy such as unification theories and quantum gravity.

Core Context

Ashoke Sen, an Indian theoretical physicist and the ICTS-Infosys Madhava Chair Professor at the International Centre for Theoretical Sciences (ICTS), Bengaluru, has become the first Indian to receive the Oskar Klein Medal, in recognition of his pioneering contributions to string theory, quantum gravity and black hole physics. He delivered the 2026 Oskar Klein Memorial Lecture in Stockholm, titled "Gravity from Strings and Strings from Gravity."

Latest Developments

• Sen's key contributions include work on S-duality, which showed that seemingly different physical descriptions of a theory (strongly and weakly coupled regimes) can be mathematically equivalent.

• His 1999 "Sen Conjectures" on tachyon condensation and unstable D-branes significantly advanced the mathematical understanding of string theory.

• He also contributed to string field theory and to methods explaining black hole entropy through the microscopic counting of quantum states — a major open problem bridging quantum mechanics and gravity.

• String theory remains experimentally unverified, but is widely studied as a candidate framework for unifying general relativity and quantum mechanics.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• Ashoke Sen is affiliated with the International Centre for Theoretical Sciences (ICTS), Bengaluru.

• He is the first Indian to win the Oskar Klein Medal.

• The Kaluza-Klein theory, which the medal's namesake helped develop, attempted to unify gravity and electromagnetism using an extra spatial dimension.

• His major contributions span S-duality, tachyon condensation (the "Sen Conjectures"), string field theory, and black hole entropy.

12. India's Ramsar Wetlands Cross 103

Basic Concept

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty adopted in 1971 at Ramsar, Iran, and in force since 1975, dedicated to the conservation and wise use of wetlands. It currently has 172 Contracting Parties and recognises over 2,536 Wetlands of International Importance ("Ramsar Sites") worldwide. India joined the Convention in 1982, and its three guiding pillars are the wise use of all wetlands, the designation and management of Wetlands of International Importance, and international cooperation on shared wetlands and species. India's domestic framework for wetland protection includes the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017.

Core Context

India's Ramsar Site network has grown to 103 wetlands, with Sukhna Wetland (Chandigarh) and Sauj Jheel (Uttar Pradesh) among the latest additions, covering over 13.87 lakh hectares across 28 States and Union Territories. India now ranks first in Asia and third globally in the number of Ramsar Sites.

Latest Developments

• Tamil Nadu has the highest number of Ramsar Sites (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (14); Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) were India's first Ramsar Sites, designated in 1981, even before India formally joined the Convention in 1982.

• The Sundarban Wetland (West Bengal) is India's largest Ramsar Site, spanning about 4.23 lakh hectares.

• Chilika Lake was placed on, and later removed (in 2002) from, the Montreux Record — a list of Ramsar Sites where ecological character has changed, is changing, or is likely to change, flagging them for priority conservation attention.

• Indore and Udaipur became India's first Ramsar-accredited "Wetland Cities" in January 2025, recognising urban commitment to wetland conservation.

• Key Indian schemes supporting wetland conservation include the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA), Amrit Dharohar, Mission Sahbhagita, and MISHTI (targeting 540 sq. km of mangrove restoration).

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• India has grown its Ramsar Site count from 26 in 2014 to 103 as of October 2026, and ranks third globally and first in Asia by number of Ramsar Sites.

• The Ramsar Convention was adopted in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran, and came into force in 1975; India joined in 1982.

• The Montreux Record flags Ramsar Sites facing ecological degradation for priority monitoring and action.

• Indore and Udaipur are India's first Ramsar "Wetland Cities" (January 2025).

13. The Camels of Kutch

Basic Concept

The Rann of Kutch region in Gujarat, with its arid salt marshes, coastal mangroves and thorn-scrub forests, supports distinctive indigenous breeds of dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) that have been conserved for generations by pastoral communities such as the Rabaris, Maldharis and Jaths through closely guarded community breeding practices. These camels are ecologically and culturally significant, being adapted to extreme arid and coastal conditions unsuitable for most other livestock.

Core Context

Camel populations in Gujarat's Kutch district have fallen sharply — from a peak of over 17,600 in 1992 to critically low numbers today — a decline visibly reflected in dwindling attendance at the traditional Bhed Mata Camel Fair, where numbers have dropped from thousands of animals to under 200.

Latest Developments

• The Kharai camel, often called the "swimming camel," is uniquely adapted to coastal and mangrove ecosystems; its rounded hooves with partly webbed toes allow it to swim tidal creeks up to about 3 km to reach mangrove island pastures.

• The Kutchhi camel is the traditional inland desert breed, adapted to thorn scrub, dry grassland and the rocky terrain around the Greater and Little Rann of Kutch.

• Through browsing tree canopy and dispersing seeds, these camels play an ecological role in maintaining the health of Gulf of Kutch mangrove ecosystems and coastal biodiversity, while also supporting pastoral livelihoods, cultural identity and drought resilience.

• Threats to their survival include shrinking grazing commons, deforestation and mangrove degradation, and restrictions on traditional grazing access, all of which undermine the camels' heavily canopy-and-mangrove-dependent diet.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• The Kharai camel is distinguished by its ability to swim in coastal/mangrove waters, unlike most other camel breeds.

• Both the Kharai and Kutchhi are indigenous camel breeds of the Kutch region of Gujarat.

• Camel population in Kutch has fallen from over 17,600 (1992) to critically low numbers today.

• Camels in Kutch contribute to mangrove ecosystem maintenance through browsing and seed dispersal, linking livestock conservation directly to coastal biodiversity conservation.

14. Hydroseeding for Land Restoration

Basic Concept

Reclaiming land degraded by mining, construction or other industrial activity is a major environmental challenge, particularly in mineral-rich states. Traditional revegetation methods — manual planting or sodding — are labour-intensive, slow, and often impractical on steep or unstable slopes such as mine overburden dumps. Mechanised revegetation techniques have therefore gained importance for rapidly stabilising large degraded areas and controlling soil erosion.

Core Context

Tata Steel has introduced hydroseeding — described as a first-of-its-kind initiative in Jharkhand — at its West Bokaro Division in Ramgarh district, covering more than 50 acres of mined land, nurseries and overburden dumps, as part of its mine-land restoration efforts.

Latest Developments

• Hydroseeding uses a truck-mounted tank to mix water, seed blends, fibrous mulch, bio-fertilisers and soil-binding "tackifiers" into a slurry, which is then sprayed onto bare or sloped ground using a high-pressure cannon or hose, covering slopes up to about 80 metres from a spraying distance of up to 50 metres.

• The mulch layer forms a protective crust that retains moisture, shields seeds from sunlight and birds, and moderates soil temperature — speeding up germination and root establishment compared to conventional planting.

• Applications include reclamation of mined land and overburden dumps, erosion control on steep or bare slopes, prevention of rain washouts and dump-slope landslides, and broader ecological restoration using native grass, shrub and legume seed mixes suited to local climate and soil.

• Advantages over traditional methods include covering large areas (dozens of acres) quickly, promoting uniform and dense root growth for better slope stabilisation, and reducing both labour costs and workers' exposure to hazardous, unstable terrain.

UPSC Prelims Pointers

• Hydroseeding sprays a seed-mulch-fertiliser slurry onto land, in contrast to traditional manual planting or sodding.

• The "tackifier" component of the hydroseeding slurry is a binder that helps the mixture adhere to slopes and resist erosion.

• Tata Steel's hydroseeding initiative covers over 50 acres at its West Bokaro Division, Ramgarh district, Jharkhand.

• The technique is primarily used for mine-land reclamation, slope stabilisation and erosion control.

15. Practice MCQs

Practice MCQs

Q1. Consider the following statements regarding the Frontier Nagaland Territorial Authority (FNTA) Bill, 2026:
1. It creates a new Union Territory carved out of Nagaland.
2. It covers six eastern districts of Nagaland, including Tuensang and Mon.
3. It operationalises a Memorandum of Agreement signed between the Centre, the Nagaland Government and the Eastern Nagaland Peoples' Organisation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only

• (b) 2 and 3 only

• (c) 1 and 3 only

• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Explanation: The FNTA creates a statutory autonomous self-governing authority within Nagaland (not a new Union Territory or state) for six eastern districts — Tuensang, Mon, Longleng, Kiphire, Noklak and Shamator. It operationalises a Memorandum of Agreement signed on 5 February 2026 between the Centre, the Nagaland Government and the ENPO. Statement 1 is incorrect since Nagaland's existing boundaries and statehood remain intact.

Q2. Consider the following statements regarding the Siang Upper Multipurpose Project (SUMP):
1. It is a proposed hydropower project on the Siang river in Arunachal Pradesh.
2. The Siang river is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo before it enters India.
3. Opposition to the project is led partly by the Siang Indigenous Farmers' Forum (SIFF).
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only

• (b) 1 and 3 only

• (c) 2 and 3 only

• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation: All three statements are correct. SUMP is an 11,000 MW proposed dam on the Siang river in Arunachal Pradesh; the same river is called the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet before entering India; and the SIFF, along with groups like Adi Bane Kelang United, has led local opposition to the project.

Q3. With reference to India's Ramsar Sites, consider the following statements:
1. India now has more than 100 Ramsar Sites, ranking first in Asia by number of such sites.
2. Chilika Lake and Keoladeo National Park were India's first Ramsar Sites, designated in 1981.
3. The Montreux Record lists Ramsar Sites that have been permanently removed from the Ramsar list due to severe degradation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only

• (b) 2 and 3 only

• (c) 1 only

• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only

Explanation: India's Ramsar Site count has crossed 103, placing it first in Asia and third globally. Chilika Lake and Keoladeo National Park were indeed India's first Ramsar Sites, designated in 1981. However, the Montreux Record does not remove sites from the Ramsar list; it flags sites facing ecological change for priority monitoring and conservation attention — sites can also be removed from the Montreux Record (as Chilika Lake was, in 2002) once their condition improves, while remaining Ramsar Sites.

Q4. With reference to biomarkers used in early disease detection, which of the following pairs of a biomarker and its associated condition is/are correctly matched?
1. Tau protein (p-tau217) — Alzheimer's disease
2. Alpha-synuclein — Parkinson's disease
3. Neurofilament Light (NfL) — a disease-specific marker exclusively for autoimmune encephalitis
Select the correct answer using the code below:

• (a) 1 and 2 only

• (b) 2 and 3 only

• (c) 1 and 3 only

• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only

Explanation: Tau (p-tau217) and amyloid-beta are linked to Alzheimer's, and alpha-synuclein to Parkinson's. Neurofilament Light (NfL), however, is a non-specific marker of neurological damage across multiple disorders, not an exclusive marker for autoimmune encephalitis (which is instead linked to neuronal surface antibodies).

Q5. Consider the following statements about the Kharai camel:
1. It is found exclusively in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan.
2. It is adapted to swim in coastal and mangrove tidal creeks.
3. Its population has been declining in recent decades.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only

• (b) 2 and 3 only

• (c) 1 and 3 only

• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Explanation: The Kharai camel is found in the coastal and mangrove areas of the Kutch region of Gujarat (not the Thar Desert of Rajasthan), and is distinctively adapted to swim tidal creeks to reach mangrove pastures. Camel populations in Kutch, including the Kharai breed, have declined sharply in recent decades due to habitat and grazing-access pressures.

Q6. In the context of equity investments in India, long-term capital gains (LTCG) tax currently applies to listed equity shares held for more than:

• (a) 6 months, taxed at 10%

• (b) 12 months, taxed at 12.5% above a ₹1.25 lakh exemption

• (c) 24 months, taxed at 20%

• (d) 36 months, taxed at 15% with indexation benefit

Answer: (b) 12 months, taxed at 12.5% above a ₹1.25 lakh exemption

Explanation: Listed equity shares, equity-oriented mutual funds and domestic equity ETFs held for more than 12 months qualify as long-term, with gains above ₹1.25 lakh in a financial year taxed at 12.5% (post Budget 2024), without the benefit of indexation.

Q7. The SAMHiTA project, which recently added Sri Lanka's Gangaramaya Temple as a participating institution, is primarily concerned with:

• (a) Joint naval exercises between India and Sri Lanka

• (b) Digitisation and preservation of South Asian manuscripts

• (c) A customs data-sharing agreement

• (d) A renewable energy partnership

Answer: (b) Digitisation and preservation of South Asian manuscripts

Explanation: SAMHiTA (South Asian Manuscript Histories and Textual Archive) is an India-supported initiative, implemented by the India International Centre, New Delhi, to digitise and preserve ancient South Asian manuscripts, including Buddhist texts at Sri Lanka's Gangaramaya Temple.